Non-Status Epilepticus female rats show seizure-like behaviors in the chronic phase of Pilocarpine experimental model / Ratas sem Status Epilepticus apresentam comportamento do tipo crise epiléptica na fase crônica do modelo experimental da Pilocarpina

Abstract Only few studies have focus on animals that received Pilocarpine (Pilo) and did not develop behavioral status epilepticus (SE) and, whether they may become epileptic in the model's chronic phase. Previews works observed mossy fiber sprouting in the hippocampus of Non-SE (NSE) rats, while others observed spontaneous and recurrent seizures (SRS) 6 - 8 months after animals received Pilo. It is known that neuronal excitability is influenced by female hormones, as well as, the occurrence of SE in castrated and non-castrated female rats. However, it is not known whether females that received Pilo and did not show SE, may have SRS. The aim of this work was to investigate whether castrated and non-castrated female rats that did not show behavioral SE after Pilo, will develop SRS in the following one-year. For that, animals received 360 mg/kg of Pilo and were video monitored for 12 months. SE females from castrated and non-castrated groups became epileptic since the first month after drug injection. Epileptic behaviors were identified watching video monitoring recordings in the fast speed. Castrated and Non-castrated NSE animals showed behaviors resembling seizures described by Racine Scale stages 1 - 3. Motor alterations showed by NSE groups could be observed only when recordings were analyzed in slow speed. In addition, behavioral manifestations as, rhythmic head movements, sudden head movements, whole body movements and immobility were also observed in both, SE and NSE groups. We concluded that NSE female rats may have become epileptic. Adding to it, slow speed analysis of motor alterations was essential for the observation of NSE findings, which suggests that possibly many motor alterations have been underestimated in epilepsy experimental research.

Resumo Poucos são os estudos com foco em animais que receberam Pilocarpina (Pilo) e não desenvolveram status epilepticus (SE) comportamental e, se os mesmos se tornarão epilépticos na fase crônica do modelo. Autores observaram o brotamento das fibras musgosas no hipocampo de ratos Não-SE (NSE), enquanto outros observaram crises espontâneas e recorrentes (CER) 6 - 8 meses após receberam a droga. A excitabilidade neuronal é influenciada pelos hormônios femininos e, da mesma forma, a ocorrência de SE em ratas castradas e não-castradas. Entretanto, não é sabido se as fêmeas que não apresentam SE terão CER. O objetivo deste trabalho foi investigar se fêmeas castradas e não castradas que não tiveram SE comportamental após a injeção de Pilo desenvolverão CER dentro de um ano. Para isto, os animais receberam 360 mg/kg de Pilo e foram videomonitorados por 12 meses. As fêmeas SE castradas e não-castradas se tornaram epilépticas desde o primeiro mês pós Pilo. O comportamento epiléptico foi identificado assistindo as gravações na velocidade rápida. As fêmeas NSE castradas e não-castradas apresentaram comportamentos similares aos estágios 1 - 3 da Escala de Racine. As alterações motoras nestes grupos (NSE) foram observadas apenas quando as videomonitoração foi analisada na velocidade lenta. Além destas, manifestações comportamentais como movimentos rítmicos da cabeça, movimentos súbitos da cabeça, movimentos de todo o corpo e imobilidade também foram observadas em ambos grupos, SE e NSE. Concluímos que as fêmeas NE podem ter se tornado epilépticas. Adicionado a isto, a análise das alterações motoras na velocidade lenta foi essencial para a observação dos achados das fêmeas NSE, o que sugere que possivelmente muitas alterações motoras têm sido subestimados na pesquisa em epilepsia experimental.

Long-term dexamethasone treatment diminishes store-operated Ca entry in salivary acinar cells / 国际口腔科学杂志·英文版

Corticosteroids are used in the treatment of many diseases; however, they also induce various side effects. Dexamethasone is one of the most potent corticosteroids, and it has been reported to induce the side effect of impaired salivary gland function. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of dexamethasone on mouse submandibular gland function to gain insight into the mechanism of dexamethasone-induced salivary hypofunction. The muscarinic agonist carbachol (CCh) induced salivary secretion and was not affected by short-term dexamethasone treatment but was decreased following long-term dexamethasone administration. The expression levels of the membrane proteins Na-K-2Cl cotransporter, transmembrane member 16A, and aquaporin 5 were comparable between the control and long-term dexamethasone treatment groups. The CCh-induced increase in calcium concentration was significantly lower in the presence of extracellular Ca in the long-term dexamethasone treatment group compared to that in the control group. Furthermore, CCh-induced salivation in the absence of extracellular Ca and Ca ionophore A23187-induced salivation was comparable between the control and long-term dexamethasone treatment groups. Moreover, salivation induced by the Ca-ATPase inhibitor thapsigargin was diminished in the long-term dexamethasone treatment group. In summary, these results demonstrate that short-term dexamethasone treatment did not impair salivary gland function, whereas long-term dexamethasone treatment diminished store-operated Ca entry, resulting in hyposalivation in mouse submandibular glands.

Effect of a gel containing pilocarpine on vaginal atrophy in castrated rats

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effect of Carbopol gel formulations containing pilocarpine on the morphology and morphometry of the vaginal epithelium of castrated rats. METHODS: Thirty-one female Wistar-Hannover rats were randomly divided into four groups: the control Groups I (n=7, rats in persistent estrus; positive controls) and II (n=7, castrated rats, negative controls) and the experimental Groups, III (n=8) and IV (n=9). Persistent estrus (Group I) was achieved with a subcutaneous injection of testosterone propionate on the second postnatal day. At 90 days postnatal, rats in Groups II, III and IV were castrated and treated vaginally for 14 days with Carbopol gel (vehicle alone) or Carbopol gel containing 5% and 15% pilocarpine, respectively. Next, all of the animals were euthanized and their vaginas were removed for histological evaluation. A non-parametric test with a weighted linear regression model was used for data analysis (p<0.05). RESULTS: The morphological evaluation showed maturation of the vaginal epithelium with keratinization in Group I, whereas signs of vaginal atrophy were present in the rats of the other groups. Morphometric examinations showed mean thickness values of the vaginal epithelium of 195.10±12.23 μm, 30.90±1.14 μm, 28.16±2.98 μm and 29.84±2.30 μm in Groups I, II, III and IV, respectively, with statistically significant differences between Group I and the other three groups (p<0.0001) and no differences between Groups II, III and IV (p=0.0809). CONCLUSION: Topical gel formulations containing pilocarpine had no effect on atrophy of the vaginal epithelium in the castrated female rats.

Regulation of Gastric Electrical and Mechanical Activity by Cholinesterases in Mice

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Gastric peristalsis begins in the orad corpus and propagates to the pylorus. Directionality of peristalsis depends upon orderly generation and propagation of electrical slow waves and a frequency gradient between proximal and distal pacemakers. We sought to understand how chronotropic agonists affect coupling between corpus and antrum. METHODS: Electrophysiological and imaging techniques were used to investigate regulation of gastric slow wave frequency by muscarinic agonists in mice. We also investigated the expression and role of cholinesterases in regulating slow wave frequency and motor patterns in the stomach. RESULTS: Both acetycholinesterase (Ache) and butyrylcholine esterase (Bche) are expressed in gastric muscles and AChE is localized to varicose processes of motor neurons. Inhibition of AChE in the absence of stimulation increased slow wave frequency in corpus and throughout muscle strips containing corpus and antrum. CCh caused depolarization and increased slow wave frequency. Stimulation of cholinergic neurons increased slow wave frequency but did not cause depolarization. Neostigmine (1 muM) increased slow wave frequency, but uncoupling between corpus and antrum was not detected. Motility mapping of contractile activity in gastric muscles showed similar effects of enteric nerve stimulation on the frequency and propagation of slow waves, but neostigmine (> 1 muM) caused aberrant contractile frequency and propagation and ectopic pacemaking. CONCLUSIONS: Our data show that slow wave uncoupling is difficult to assess with electrical recording from a single or double sites and suggest that efficient metabolism of ACh released from motor neurons is an extremely important regulator of slow wave frequency and propagation and gastric motility patterns.

A Review of Pharmacological Strategy for Cognitive Deficits in Schizophrenia / 대한정신분열병학회지

Cognitive deficit is frequently observed in patients with schizophrenia. It is significantly associated with functional outcome. In the past 20 years, due to significant advances on the concept of schizophrenia, cognitive deficit has been accepted as a core feature. In the DSM-5, cognitive deficit does not introduce diagnostic criteria of schizophrenia, but did one dimension of diagnosis of psychosis. Existing schizophrenia drugs are effective in treatment of positive symptoms of schizophrenia, but lack of effectiveness on improving cognitive function. Led by NIMH (National Institute of Mental Health), the MATRICS (Measurement and Treatment Research to Improve Cognition in Schizophrenia) meeting was conducted in order to achieve consensus on measuring tools and neuropharmacological targets for clinical trials for development of new drugs for improvement of cognitive function in schizophrenia. At the MATRICS consensus meeting, glutamatergic modulators and nicotinic and muscarinic agonists are expected to be promising, but should be proven by a double-blind placebo-controlled multicenter study for patients.

Malakoplakia in a healthy young female patient

Malakoplakia is a rare granulomatous disease that occurs commonly in the urinary tract and secondarily in the gastrointestinal tract. Most reported cases of malakoplakia are associated with immunosuppressive diseases or chronic prolonged illness. Here, we report a rare case of malakoplakia in a young healthy adolescent without any underlying disease. A 19-year-old female was referred to our hospital following the discovery of multiple rectal polyps with sigmoidoscopy. She had no specific past medical history but complained of recurrent abdominal pain and diarrhea for 3 months. A colonoscopy revealed diverse mucosal lesions including plaques, polyps, nodules, and mass-like lesions. Histological examination revealed a sheet of histiocytes with pathognomonic Michaelis-Gutmann bodies. We treated the patient with ciprofloxacin, the cholinergic agonist bethanechol, and a multivitamin for 6 months. A follow-up colonoscopy revealed that her condition was resolved with this course of treatment.

Methanol extract of Desmodium gangeticum DC root mimetic post-conditioning effect in isolated perfused rat heart by stimulating muscarinic receptors

OBJECTIVE@#To evaluate pharmacological mimetic action of herbal extract Desmodium gangeticum (DG) roots on ischemia reperfusion injury.@*METHODS@#With the help of Langendroff perfusion technique, ischemic post condition (POC) mimetic action of DG methanol root extract was evaluated and compared by using standard drugs that acts as muscarinic receptor agonist and antagonist, namely acetylcholine (Ach) and atropine (Atr) respectively in an isolated rat heart.@*RESULTS@#The physiological parameters like left ventricular developed pressure, end diastolic pressure and working index of isolated rat heart showed significant recovery in DG root extract administrated rat heart, similar to the recovery by POC. Kymogram results showed muscarinic receptor agonist like action for DG methanol root extract, confirmed in rat heart by muscarnic receptor agonist (acetylcholine) and anatoginst (atropine). Administration of DG root extract prior to reperfusion showed better antioxidant status in myocardial tissue homogenate and mitochondrial, complemented by the levels of cardiac specific marker proteins in myocardial tissue and perfusate. Even though DG methanol root extract mimics its action similar to that of Ach, the myocardial protection mediated by the extract was superior to Ach, due to the presence of antioxidants in the crude extract.@*CONCLUSIONS@#DG methanol root extract provides myocardial protection towards IRI by stimulating muscarinic receptors.

Effects of milk curd on saliva secretion in healthy volunteer compared to baseline, 2% pilocarpine and equivalent pH adjusted acetic acid solutions.

Background: Dry mouth is a common clinical problem, and different products have been proposed to improve it. In this investigation, the effects of "milk curd" on the amount of saliva secretion were studied. Materials and Methods: A total of 32 patients (aged 20-30) were selected from healthy volunteers. Milk curd concentrations of 0.5, 1, 2 and 4%, and 2% pilocarpine were prepared as drops. The impact of the drugs on the saliva weight was assessed after 1-5 min. To determine the effects of the pH of the milk curd on the amount of saliva secretion, different concentrations of acetic acid were used. Results: At the end of the first minute, the differences between the data for all groups were statistically significant, and the difference between the 2% and 4% milk curd groups was higher than the others (P < 0.0001). The differences in the amount of the saliva secreted at the end of the second minute between the baseline and 4% milk curd groups and between the 0.5% and 4% MC groups were significant (P = 0.006 and P = 0.025, respectively). In total, there was no significant difference between the effect of various pH treatments and the amount of baseline saliva secretion. Conclusion: Milk curd has a significant local impact, and the saliva increase depends on the dose. It seems that this effect is not only related to its acidic taste. As a result, factors other than pH are involved in the effect.

The effects of antidepressants and pilocarpine on rat parotid glands: an immunohistochemical study

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effects of antidepressants and pilocarpine on the quantity of myoepithelial cells and on the proliferation index of the epithelial cells of rat parotid glands. INTRODUCTION: Hyposalivation, xerostomia, and alterations in saliva composition are important clinical side effects related to the use of antidepressants. METHODS: Ninety male Wistar rats were allocated to nine groups. The control groups received saline for 30 (group C30) or 60 days (group C60) or pilocarpine for 60 days (group Pilo). The experimental groups were administered fluoxetine (group F30) or venlafaxine for 30 days (group V30); fluoxetine (group FS60) or venlafaxine (group VS60) with saline for 60 days; or fluoxetine (group FP60) or venlafaxine (group VP60) with pilocarpine for 60 days. Parotid gland specimens were processed, and the immunohistochemical expression of calponin and proliferating cell nuclear anti-antigen on the myoepithelial and parenchymal cells, respectively, was evaluated. Analysis of variance (ANOVA), Tukey HSD and Games-Howell tests were applied to detect differences among groups (p<0.05). RESULTS: Compared with the controls, chronic exposure to antidepressants was associated with an increase in the number of positively stained cells for calponin. In addition, venlafaxine administration for 30 days was associated with an increase in the number of positively stained cells for proliferating cell nuclear anti-antigen. Fluoxetine and pilocarpine (group FP60) induced a significant decrease in the number of positively stained cells for calponin compared with all other groups. CONCLUSIONS: The number of positively stained cells for calponin increased after chronic administration of antidepressants. The proliferation index of the epithelial cells of rat parotid glands was not altered by the use of antidepressants for 60 days.

Inhibitory action of antioxidants (ascorbic acid or α-tocopherol) on seizures and brain damage induced by pilocarpine in rats / Ação inibitória de antioxidantes (ácido ascórbico e α-tocoferol) nas convulsões e dano cerebral em ratos induzidos pela pilocarpina

Temporal lobe epilepsy is the most common form of epilepsy in humans. Oxidative stress is a mechanism of cell death induced by seizures. Antioxidant compounds have neuroprotective effects due to their ability to inhibit free radical production. The objectives of this work were to comparatively study the inhibitory action of antioxidants (ascorbic acid or α-tocopherol) on behavioral changes and brain damage induced by high doses of pilocarpine, aiming to further clarify the mechanism of action of these antioxidant compounds. In order to determinate neuroprotective effects, we studied the effects of ascorbic acid (250 or 500 mg/kg, i.p.) and α-tocopherol (200 or 400 mg/kg, i.p.) on the behavior and brain lesions observed after seizures induced by pilocarpine (400 mg/kg, i.p., P400 model) in rats. Ascorbic acid or α-tocopherol injections prior to pilocarpine suppressed behavioral seizure episodes. These findings suggested that free radicals can be produced during brain damage induced by seizures. In the P400 model, ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol significantly decreased cerebral damage percentage. Antioxidant compounds can exert neuroprotective effects associated with inhibition of free radical production. These results highlighted the promising therapeutic potential of ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol in treatments for neurodegenerative diseases.

A epilepsia de lobo temporal é a mais comum forma de epilepsia em humanos. O estresse oxidativo é um dos mecanismos de morte celular induzida pelas crises convulsivas. Os compostos antioxidantes apresentam efeitos neuroprotetores devido à sua capacidade de inibir a produção de radicais livres. Os objetivos do presente trabalho foram estudar de forma comparativa a ação inibitória de antioxidantes (ácido ascórbico e α-tocoferol) sobre as alterações comportamentais e histopatológicas no hipocampo de ratos após convulsões induzidas pela pilocarpina. A fim de determinar os efeitos neuroprotetores destas drogas, o presente trabalho estudou os efeitos do ácido ascórbico (250 ou 500 mg/kg, i.p.) e do α-tocoferol (200 ou 400 mg/kg, i.p.) sobre o comportamento e as lesões cerebrais observados após convulsões induzidas pela pilocarpina (400 mg/kg, i.p., P400), em ratos. As injeções de ácido ascórbico ou α-tocoferol antes da administração de pilocarpina reduzem o número de animais que convulsionam. Estes achados sugerem que os radicais livres podem induzir o desenvolvimento de lesão cerebral durante as crises epilépticas. No modelo P400, o ácido ascórbico e o α-tocoferol, diminuem significativamente os danos cerebrais. Os compostos antioxidantes podem exercer efeitos neuroprotetores, e esses resultados podem estar associados à inibição da produção de radicais livres. Estes resultados sugerem um promissor potencial terapêutico tanto para o ácido ascórbico quanto para o α-tocoferol no tratamento de doenças neurodegenerativas.

Alcohol consumption and sudden unexpected death in epilepsy: experimental approach / Consumo de álcool e morte súbita em epilepsia: uma abordagem experimental

Using the pilocarpine model of epilepsy, we investigated the effects of alcohol consumption on the frequency of seizures in animals with epilepsy as well the underlying a possible association between alcohol intake and sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) occurrence. Rats were divided randomly into two groups: (A) rats with epilepsy and (B) rats with epilepsy that received a daily dose of ethanol solution (350 mg kg-1, i.p.) for 30 days. The basal frequency of seizures observed in the A and B groups during the first 30 days were 3.4±1.5 and 3.2±1.9 seizures per week per animal, respectively. In B group, it was observed a significant seizure increase (11.6±5.3) during the first 2 weeks of alcohol administration and quite interesting, one rat died suddenly after a generalized tonic-clonic seizure during this period. We concluded in our experimental study that exist a possible association between alcohol abuse and SUDEP occurrence.

Utilizando o modelo de epilepsia induzido pela pilocarpina, investigamos os efeitos do consumo de álcool sobre a frequência de crises epilépticas em animais com epilepsia, como também uma possível associação entre a ingestão de álcool e ocorrência de morte súbita e inesperada nas epilepsias (SUDEP). Os animais foram randomicamente divididos em dois grupos: (A) ratos com epilepsia e (B) ratos com epilepsia que receberam uma dose diária de etanol (350 mg kg-1, i.p.) por 30 dias consecutivos. A frequência basal de crises epilépticas observadas nos grupos A e B durante os primeiros 30 dias foram de 3,4±1,5 e 3,2±1,9 crises por semana/animal, respectivamente. No grupo B, ocorreu aumento significativo na frequência de crises (11,6±5,3) durante as duas primeiras semanas de administração do álcool e de forma interessante, um animal morreu subitamente após uma crise generalizada tônico-clonica durante esse período. Concluímos em nossa abordagem experimental que existe uma possível associação entre o consumo de álcool e a ocorrência de SUDEP.

Physical exercise in rats with epilepsy is protective against seizures: evidence of animal studies / Exercício físico em ratos com epilepsia como fator protetor contra crises epilépticas: evidencias de estudos em animais

People with epilepsy have been discouraged from participating in physical activity due to the fear that it will exacerbate seizures. Clinical and animal studies indicate a reduction of seizure frequency as well as decrease susceptibility to subsequently evoked seizures after an exercise program. Analyses from experimental studies of animals with epilepsy submitted to physical training programs were performed. In all studies the physical training was able to reduce the number of spontaneous seizures in rats with epilepsy. Seizure occurrence during exercise was relatively absent in the majority of studies. No death was found in animals with epilepsy during 1680 h of exercise. Based on these results it is plausible encouraging persons with epilepsy to non-pharmacological treatments and preventative measures such as physical exercise.

Pessoas com epilepsia têm sido desencorajadas da prática de atividade física por receio do exercício físico exacerbar as crises epilépticas. Estudos clínicos e em animais mostram uma redução da frequência de crises, assim como diminuição da susceptibilidade a crises subseqüentes após programa de exercício físico. Neste estudo realizamos uma análise de estudos experimentais de animais com epilepsia submetidos a programas de exercício físico. Em todos os estudos, o treinamento físico foi capaz de reduzir o número de crises espontâneas em ratos com epilepsia. A ocorrência de crises durante o exercício físico foi relativamente ausente na maioria dos estudos. Nenhuma morte foi encontrada em animais com epilepsia durante 1680 h de exercício físico. Baseados nestes resultados parece aceitável encorajar as pessoas com epilepsia a tratamentos não farmacológicos e medidas preventivas como o exercício físico.

The pilocarpine model of epilepsy: what have we learned?

The systemic administration of a potent muscarinic agonist pilocarpine in rats promotes sequential behavioral and electrographic changes that can be divided into 3 distinct periods: (a) an acute period that built up progressively into a limbic status epilepticus and that lasts 24 h, (b) a silent period with a progressive normalization of EEG and behavior which varies from 4 to 44 days, and (c) a chronic period with spontaneous recurrent seizures (SRSs). The main features of the SRSs observed during the long-term period resemble those of human complex partial seizures and recurs 2-3 times per week per animal. Therefore, the pilocarpine model of epilepsy is a valuable tool not only to study the pathogenesis of temporal lobe epilepsy in human condition, but also to evaluate potential antiepileptogenic drugs. This review concentrates on data from pilocarpine model of epilepsy.

A administração sistêmica do potente agonista muscarínico pilocarpina em ratos promove alterações comportamentais e eletrográficas que podem ser divididas em três períodos distintos: (a) período agudo o animal evolui progressivamente para o status epilepticus, que perdura por até 24h; (b) período silencioso, caracterizado pela normalização progressiva do comportamento e do EEG e pode ter uma duração de 4 a 44 dias; período crônico, aparecimento de crises epilépticas espontâneas e recorrentes (SRSs). As características das SRSs observadas nos animas durante o período crônico são semelhantes às crises parciais complexas dos seres humanos e recorrem de 2-3 vezes por semana/animal. Além disso, o modelo de epilepsia induzido pela pilocarpina é válido não somente para se estudar a patogênese da epilepsia do lobo temporal em humanos como também para se testar a viabilidade de drogas antiepilépticas. Esse artigo de revisão aborda diversos aspectos do modelo de epilepsia induzido pela pilocarpina.

An increase in intracelluar free calcium ions modulated by cholinergic receptors in rat facial nucleus / 中华医学杂志(英文版)

<p><b>BACKGROUND</b>Ca(2+) in the central nervous system plays important roles in brain physiology, including neuronal survival and regeneration in rats with injured facial motoneurons. The present research was to study the modulations of intracellular free Ca(2+) concentrations by cholinergic receptors in rat facial nucleus, and the mechanisms of the modulations.</p><p><b>METHODS</b>The fluorescence intensity of facial nucleus in Fluo-3 AM loaded acute brainstem slices was detected by applying intracellular free Ca(2+) measurement technique via confocal laser scanning microscope. The changes of fluorescence intensity of facial nucleus indicate the average changes of intracellular free Ca(2+) levels of the neurons.</p><p><b>RESULTS</b>Acetylcholine was effective at increasing the fluorescence intensity of facial nucleus. Muscarine chloride induced a marked increase of fluorescence intensity in a concentration dependent fashion. The enhancement of fluorescence intensity by muscarine chloride was significantly reduced by thapsigargin (depletor of intracellular Ca(2+) store; P < 0.01), rather than Ca(2+) free artifical cerebrospinal fluid or EGTA (free Ca(2+) chelator; P > 0.05). And the increase of fluorescence intensity was also significantly inhibited by pirenzepine (M(1) subtype selective antagonist; P < 0.01) and 4-DAMP (M(3) subtype selective antagonist; P < 0.01). In addition, fluorescence intensity was markedly increased by nicotine. The enhancement of fluorescence intensity by nicotine was significantly reduced by EGTA, nifedipine (L-type voltage-gated Ca(2+) channel blocker), dihydro-beta-erythroidine (alpha4beta2 subtype selective antagonist), and in Ca(2+) free artificial cerebrospinal fluid (P < 0.01), but not in the presence of mibefradil (M-type voltage-gated Ca(2+) channel blocker) or thapsigargin (P > 0.05).</p><p><b>CONCLUSIONS</b>The data provide the evidence that muscarinic receptors may induce the increase of intracellular free Ca(2+) levels through the Ca(2+) release of intracellular Ca(2+) stores, in a manner related to M(1) and M(3) subtypes of muscarinic receptors in rat facial nucleus. Nicotine may increase intracellular free Ca(2+) concentrations via the influx of extracellular Ca(2+)+ mainly across L-type voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels, in a manner related to the alpha4beta2 subtype of nicotinic receptors.</p>

Participation of the cholinergic system in the ethanol-induced suppression of paradoxical sleep in rats

Sleep disturbance is among the many consequences of ethanol abuse in both humans and rodents. Ethanol consumption can reduce REM or paradoxical sleep (PS) in humans and rats, respectively. The first aim of this study was to develop an animal model of ethanol-induced PS suppression. This model administered intragastrically (by gavage) to male Wistar rats (3 months old, 200-250 g) 0.5 to 3.5 g/kg ethanol. The 3.5 g/kg dose of ethanol suppressed the PS stage compared with the vehicle group (distilled water) during the first 2-h interval (0-2 h; 1.3 vs 10.2; P < 0.001). The second aim of this study was to investigate the mechanisms by which ethanol suppresses PS. We examined the effects of cholinergic drug pretreatment. The cholinergic system was chosen because of the involvement of cholinergic neurotransmitters in regulating the sleep-wake cycle. A second set of animals was pretreated with 2.5, 5.0, and 10 mg/kg pilocarpine (cholinergic agonist) or atropine (cholinergic antagonist). These drugs were administered 1 h prior to ethanol (3.5 g/kg) or vehicle. Treatment with atropine prior to vehicle or ethanol produced a statistically significant decrease in PS, whereas pilocarpine had no effect on minutes of PS. Although the mechanism by which ethanol induces PS suppression is not fully understood, these data suggest that the cholinergic system is not the only system involved in this interaction.

A novel derivative of xanomeline improved memory function in aged mice / 神经科学通报·英文版

<p><b>OBJECTIVE</b>To characterize the function of a new xanomeline-derived M1 agonist, 3-[3-(3-florophenyl-2-propyn-1-ylthio)-1,2,5-thiadiazol-4-yl]-1,2,5,6- tetrahydro-1-methylpyridine Oxalate (EUK1001), the acute toxicity and the effects on synaptic plasticity and cognition of EUK1001 were evaluated.</p><p><b>METHODS</b>To examine the median lethal dose (LD50) of EUK1001, a wide dose range of EUK1001 was administered by p.o. and i.p. in aged mice. Furthermore, novel object recognition task and in vitro electrophysiological technique were utilized to investigate the effects of EUK1001 on recognition memory and hippocampal synaptic plasticity in aged mice.</p><p><b>RESULTS</b>EUK1001 exhibited lower toxicity than xanomeline, and improved the performance of aged mice in the novel object recognition test. In addition, bath application of 1 micromol/L EUK1001 directly induced long-term potentiation in the hippocampus slices.</p><p><b>CONCLUSION</b>We conclude that EUK1001 can improve the age-related cognitive deficits.</p>

Methacholine and PDGF activate store-operated calcium entry in neuronal precursor cells via distinct calcium entry channels

Neurons are a diverse cell type exhibiting hugely different morphologies and neurotransmitter specifications. Their distinctive phenotypes are established during differentiation from pluripotent precursor cells. The signalling pathways that specify the lineage down which neuronal precursor cells differentiate remain to be fully elucidated. Among the many signáis that impinge on the differentiation of neuronal cells, cytosolic calcium (Ca2+) has an important role. However, little is known about the nature of the Ca2+ signáis involved in fate choice in neuronal precursor cells, or their sources. In this study, we show that activation of either muscarinic or platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) receptors induces a biphasic increase in cytosolic Ca2+ that consists of reléase from intracellular stores followed by sustained entry across the plasma membrane. For both agonists, the prolonged Ca2+ entry occurred via a store-operated pathway that was pharmacologically indistinguishable from Ca2+ entry initiated by thapsigargin. However, muscarinic receptor-activated Ca2+ entry was inhibited by siRNA-mediated knockdown of TRPC6, whereas Ca2+ entry evoked by PDGF was not. These data provide evidence for agonist-specific activation of molecularly distinct store-operated Ca2+ entry pathways, and raise the possibility of privileged communication between these Ca2+ entry pathways and downstream processes.

Pacientes chagásicos crônicos portadores de disfunção do nódulo sinusal: a presença de anticorpos IgG com ação agonista muscarínica independe da disfunção ventricular esquerda? / Chronic Chagas disease patients with sinus node dysfunction: is the presence of IgG antibodies with muscarinic agonist action independent of left ventricular dysfunction?

Estudos mostram que anticorpos IgG agonistas muscarínicos, de pacientes chagásicos, alteram a atividade elétrica de células cardíacas in vitro. Outros consideram sua presença, e a da síndrome do nódulo sinusal, conseqüências da lesão cardíaca progressiva. Objetivou-se avaliar a relação entre os anticorpos e as disfunções nodal e ventricular esquerda, em 65 pacientes chagásicos crônicos divididos em grupo I, composto de 31 pacientes portadores da síndrome do nódulo sinusal, e grupo II, de não portadores. A análise dos dados, pelo modelo log linear, mostrou uma interdependência entre a disfunção do nódulo sinusal e os anticorpos (p=0,0021) e entre a disfunção nodal e a ventricular (p=0,0005), mas não houve relação entre esta última e os anticorpos. Idade e sexo não tiveram influência sobre as outras variáveis. Chagásicos crônicos com a síndrome do nódulo sinusal têm maior prevalência de anticorpos agonistas muscarínicos, independentemente da presença de disfunção miocárdica.

Studies have shown that muscarinic agonist IgG antibodies from Chagas disease patients alter the electrical activity of cardiac cells in vitro. Others have considered their presence, along with sinus node dysfunction, to be consequences of progressive cardiac lesions. The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between these antibodies and sinus node and left ventricular dysfunction in 65 chronic Chagas disease patients. These patients were divided into group I, composed of 31 patients with sinus node dysfunction, and group II, composed of the patients without this syndrome. Data analysis using the log linear model showed interdependence between sinus node dysfunction and the antibodies (p = 0.0021) and between nodal and ventricular dysfunction (p = 0.0005). However, no relationship was found between the antibodies and ventricular function. Age and sex did not influence any other variables. The chronic Chagas disease patients with sinus node dysfunction had higher prevalence of muscarinic agonist antibodies, independent of the presence of myocardial dysfunction.

Assessment of the progressive nature of cell damage in the pilocarpine model of epilepsy

Pilocarpine-induced (320 mg/kg, ip) status epilepticus (SE) in adult (2-3 months) male Wistar rats results in extensive neuronal damage in limbic structures. Here we investigated whether the induction of a second SE (N = 6) would generate damage and cell loss similar to that seen after a first SE (N = 9). Counts of silver-stained (indicative of cell damage) cells, using the Gallyas argyrophil III method, revealed a markedly lower neuronal injury in animals submitted to re-induction of SE compared to rats exposed to a single episode of pilocarpine-induced SE. This effect could be explained as follows: 1) the first SE removes the vulnerable cells, leaving behind resistant cells that are not affected by the second SE; 2) the first SE confers increased resistance to the remaining cells, analogous to the process of ischemic tolerance. Counting of Nissl-stained cells was performed to differentiate between these alternative mechanisms. Our data indicate that different neuronal populations react differently to SE induction. For some brain areas most, if not all, of the vulnerable cells are lost after an initial insult leaving only relatively resistant cells and little space for further damage or cell loss. For some other brain areas, in contrast, our data support the hypothesis that surviving cells might be modified by the initial insult which would confer a sort of excitotoxic tolerance. As a consequence of both mechanisms, subsequent insults after an initial insult result in very little damage regardless of their intensity.

Intestinal ischemia/reperfusion induces bronchial hyperreactivity and increases serum TNF-alpha in rats

INTRODUCÃO: A isquemia/reperfusão intestinal ou hepática induz lesão pulmonar aguda em modelos animais de falência de múltiplos órgãos. O fator de necrose tumoral (TNF-a) está envolvido no mecanismo inflamatório da síndrome da angústia respiratória aguda. Embora a cascata inflamatória que leva à síndrome da angústia respiratória aguda tenha sido extensamente investigada, os componentes mecânicos desta ainda não são completamente compreendidos. Nós levantamos a hipótese de que a isquemia/reperfusão esplâncnica provoca aumento da reatividade contráctil das vias aéreas, bem como aumento do TNF-a sérico. OBJETIVO: avaliar a reatividade da musculatura lisa brônquica sob estimulação com metacolina, e medir os níveis séricos de TNF-a após isquemia/reperfusão intestinal e/ou hepática em ratos. MÉTODO: Ratos Wistar foram submetidos a 45 min de isquemia intestinal, ou 20 minutos de isquemia hepática, ou a ambas (isquemia dupla), ou controle, seguidos por 120 min de reperfusão. A resposta brônquica a concentrações molares (10-7 to 3x10-4) de metacolina foi avaliada usando-se uma preparação ex-vivo de musculatura brônquica. RESULTADOS: A resposta brônquica (g/100mg de tecido) mostrou reatividade aumentada a concentrações crescentes de metacolina na isquemia intestinal e isquemia dupla, mas não na isquemia hepática. Similarmente, o TNF-a sérico aumentou na isquemia intestinal e isquemia dupla, mas não na isquemia hepática. CONCLUSÃO: Isquemia intestinal, quer isolada ou associada à hepática, provocou hiper-reatividade da musculatura brônquica, sugerindo um possível papel da constrição brônquica na disfunção respiratória conseqüente à isquemia/reperfusão esplâncnica. Este aumento foi simultâneo ao do TNF-a sérico, porém o possível efeito causal do TNF-a na contractilidade brônquica permanece a ser determinado.